Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Alpha-Ketoglutarate and Aging: The Rejuvant Evidence
A rigorous look at alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) and Rejuvant — the mouse lifespan data, the 8-year biological age claim, and what's actually proven.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
All Topics
View all 42 terms
Longevity Science
Longevity science investigates the biological mechanisms of aging and develops interventions to extend healthy human lifespan. Organized around the 12 hallmarks of aging, the field encompasses epigenetic reprogramming with Yamanaka factors, senolytic drugs that clear zombie cells, NAD+ boosting strategies, telomere biology, and mTOR pathway modulation with rapamycin. With companies like Altos Labs ($3B+), Life Biosciences (first human trial of epigenetic reprogramming in 2026), and Retro Biosciences pushing clinical boundaries, longevity science is transitioning from theoretical research to human trials.
75 articles1 comparisons42 glossary terms6 clinical trials
Key Subtopics
Epigenetic Reprogramming
Using Yamanaka factors to reset the epigenetic clock and reverse cellular aging
Senolytics
Drugs that selectively destroy senescent cells to reduce inflammation and tissue damage
NAD+ and Sirtuins
Boosting cellular energy metabolism and DNA repair through NAD+ precursors
Telomere Biology
Understanding and potentially extending the protective caps on chromosome ends
Epigenetic Clocks
Measuring biological age through DNA methylation patterns
Hallmarks of Aging
The 12 interconnected cellular processes that drive aging
Caloric Restriction
Dietary interventions and mimetics that activate longevity pathways
Deep Dives
In-depth analysis and expert-level coverage
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Intercellular Communication Aging: The Peptide-Signaling Hallmark
Intercellular communication aging explained: how hormonal, neural, and exosomal signaling break down with age — and why this hallmark is the most directly relevant to peptide therapy.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Amycretin: Novo Nordisk's Oral Dual GLP-1 + Amylin Peptide
Amycretin is Novo Nordisk's investigational oral GLP-1 + amylin dual agonist. What the Phase 1 data showed and why oral delivery matters.
Apr 8, 202611 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Autophagy: The Cellular Recycling Pathway at the Heart of Longevity
Autophagy longevity science explained: how the cell's recycling system declines with age and why it is a central target for healthspan interventions.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Blue Zones: What the Science Actually Supports (and What It Doesn't)
Blue zones longevity research is part genuine science, part storytelling. Here's what holds up under scrutiny — and what doesn't.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
BPC-157: What the Science Actually Says (2026 Evidence Review)
BPC-157 is everywhere in biohacker circles. A rigorous 2026 review of what the peer-reviewed evidence actually shows about this gastric peptide.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
CagriSema: Novo Nordisk's Next-Gen Obesity Peptide Combo
CagriSema is Novo Nordisk's cagrilintide + semaglutide fixed-dose combo for obesity. REDEFINE-1 Phase 3 showed 22.7% weight loss — below internal expectations.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Caloric Restriction and Intermittent Fasting: Evidence for Longevity
Caloric restriction longevity evidence reviewed: nearly a century of rodent, monkey, and human trials — and an honest assessment of what really works.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Cell-Penetrating Peptides: The Hidden Key to CRISPR Delivery
Cell penetrating peptides are quietly solving CRISPR's biggest problem — getting the scissors inside the cell. A deep evidence review.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Inflammaging: The Chronic Inflammation Hallmark of Aging
Inflammaging explained: how chronic low-grade inflammation drives aging, the role of NLRP3, SASP, IL-6, and the senolytic and anti-inflammatory drugs targeting it.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin: The Growth Hormone Peptide Stack Examined
CJC-1295 and ipamorelin are the most popular growth hormone peptide stack in biohacker circles. Here is what the evidence actually says.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Copper Peptides for Skin: The Cosmetic Science (2026 Guide)
Copper peptides for skin have stronger evidence than most cosmetic actives. Here is how GHK-Cu and AHK-Cu work, what trials show, and which products actually deliver them.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Cyclic Peptides: Engineering Stability Into Peptide Drugs
Cyclic peptides explained — how head-to-tail, stapled, and bicyclic designs engineer stability, affinity, and oral bioavailability beyond Lipinski's rule of five.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Nutrient Sensing Aging: The 4 Pathways That Control Longevity
Nutrient sensing aging explained: how insulin/IGF-1, mTOR, AMPK, and sirtuins drive longevity, and the rapamycin, metformin, and NAD+ evidence behind each pathway.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Epigenetic Clocks in 2026: Horvath, GrimAge, DunedinPACE Compared
The 2026 state of epigenetic clocks — Horvath, Hannum, PhenoAge, GrimAge, DunedinPACE — how they're used in longevity trials and their real limits.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Epitalon: Evidence Review of the Telomerase Longevity Peptide
Epitalon is marketed as a telomerase-activating longevity peptide. A rigorous look at what the evidence actually shows — and what it doesn't.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Exercise and Longevity: Why VO2 Max Is the #1 Mortality Predictor
VO2 max longevity evidence is overwhelming. A rigorous look at the data: Cleveland Clinic, Kodama meta-analysis, zone 2, strength training, and dose.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
FGF21: The Metabolic Longevity Hormone That Mimics Caloric Restriction
FGF21 aging research shows a liver hormone that mimics fasting and extends mouse lifespan 40%. Here's the science, the trials, and the paradox.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Fisetin Senolytic: 2026 Clinical Trial Update
Fisetin senolytic trial results reviewed: Mayo Clinic AFFIRM data, Kirkland's senolytic screen findings, and what 2026 human evidence actually supports so far.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
GDF11: The Parabiosis Factor and the 'Young Blood' Controversy
GDF11 aging research sparked hope that a single blood factor could reverse aging — then collapsed into controversy. Here's what's real and what's not.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Genomic Instability Aging: DNA Damage as the First Hallmark
Genomic instability aging explained: DNA damage accumulation, progeroid syndromes, the ICE mouse, and the CRISPR base editors targeting progerin in clinical trials.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
GHK-Cu: The Copper Peptide That Resets Gene Expression
GHK-Cu modulates thousands of genes toward a younger expression profile. What this copper peptide actually does — and what it doesn't.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
GlyNAC (Glycine + NAC): The Glutathione Restoration Study
GlyNAC — glycine plus N-acetylcysteine — aims to restore glutathione in older adults. A rigorous look at the Baylor trials and what they actually show.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Irisin: The Exercise-Induced Peptide Driving Longevity Benefits
Irisin exercise research reveals how a muscle-released peptide drives brown fat activation, bone health, and even cognitive protection. The full story.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Klotho: The Anti-Aging Hormone Linked to Brain Health
Klotho longevity science: Kuro-o's 1997 discovery, Dena Dubal's cognition work, kidney and brain roles, KL-VS variant, and the therapeutic pipeline in 2026.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Metformin for Anti-Aging: The Complete 2026 Evidence Review
An honest 2026 review of metformin anti-aging evidence — mechanism, UKPDS, TAME trial, exercise blunting, and who actually benefits.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Mitochondrial Dysfunction Aging: The Hallmark Powering Decline
Mitochondrial dysfunction aging explained: mtDNA mutations, ATP decline, MOTS-c, urolithin A, and the new CRISPR base editors that finally reach mitochondrial DNA.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
MOTS-c: The Mitochondrial Peptide Linked to Longevity
MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid peptide encoded by mitochondrial DNA, acting as an exercise-mimetic hormone. A rigorous look at the longevity evidence.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
NMN, NR, and NAD Precursors: Evidence Review (2026)
Honest 2026 evidence review of NMN NAD precursors — do they raise NAD+, do they work, and what do the human trials actually show?
Apr 8, 20267 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Orforglipron: Lilly's Oral GLP-1 Small Molecule Explained
Orforglipron is Eli Lilly's oral non-peptide GLP-1 agonist — a once-daily pill with no food or water restrictions, delivering ~15% weight loss in Phase 2.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Oxytocin Peptide Therapy: Bonding, Autism, and Beyond
Oxytocin peptide therapy spans labor induction, autism research, and social cognition trials—with a mixed evidence base and a landmark history in peptide chemistry.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Parabiosis and Plasma Dilution: The Young Blood Longevity Frontier
Parabiosis plasma dilution research reshaped longevity science. From young blood to saline swaps — the honest story of two decades of work.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Peptide Drug Delivery: Solving the Bioavailability Problem
Why peptide drug delivery is hard — proteolysis, permeability, half-life — and how lipidation, SNAC, LNPs and microneedles are finally solving the bioavailability problem.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Peptide Therapy Side Effects: A Comprehensive Evidence Guide
A rigorous review of peptide therapy side effects — from GLP-1 class risks to research-chemical contamination, immunogenicity, and gray-market hazards.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Peptide Stacks: What Biohackers Are Actually Using (and What the Evidence Says)
A rigorous look at the most common peptide stacks in longevity and biohacker communities — what they are, what evidence supports them, and what does not.
Apr 8, 202612 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Proteostasis Aging: Why Protein Quality Control Fails Over Time
Proteostasis aging explained: how the heat shock response, ubiquitin-proteasome system, and autophagy fail with age — and which interventions actually restore protein quality control.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
PT-141 (Bremelanotide): Melanocortin Peptide for Sexual Function
PT-141 (bremelanotide, brand name Vyleesi) is an FDA-approved melanocortin peptide that acts centrally on brain circuits to treat hypoactive sexual desire disorder.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Rapamycin for Longevity: What the Evidence Actually Shows (2026)
The honest 2026 evidence review for rapamycin longevity — mouse lifespan data, human trials (PEARL, TRIAD, dog trial), dosing, risks.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Retatrutide: The Triple-Agonist Peptide That Could Dethrone Ozempic
Retatrutide is Eli Lilly's investigational triple agonist targeting GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors—delivering up to 24% weight loss in Phase 2 trials.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Selank and Semax: Russian Nootropic Peptides Examined
Selank and Semax are Russian nootropic peptides claimed to boost BDNF and reduce anxiety. We examine the evidence, mechanism, and regulatory reality.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Semaglutide vs Tirzepatide: Mechanism Deep-Dive (2026)
A rigorous look at the semaglutide mechanism, tirzepatide's dual GLP-1/GIP agonism, and head-to-head trial data from SUSTAIN, STEP, SURPASS and SURMOUNT-5.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Senolytics Clinical Trials Results 2026: What Data Shows
Updated senolytics clinical trials results for 2026: D+Q, fisetin, and UBX-1325 data analyzed. See which trials succeeded, which failed, and what comes next.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS): How Peptides Are Made
Solid phase peptide synthesis explained — Merrifield's Nobel-winning invention, Fmoc vs Boc chemistry, and why SPPS is the bottleneck behind the GLP-1 boom.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Spermidine: The Autophagy-Inducing Molecule for Longevity
Spermidine longevity evidence review: polyamine biology, Madeo lab findings, mouse cardioprotection, human epidemiology, and what supplementation can actually do.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Stem Cell Exhaustion Aging: Why Tissue Renewal Slows Down
Stem cell exhaustion aging explained: how HSCs, satellite cells, and neural stem cells decline with age, and what parabiosis, Yamanaka reprogramming, and gene therapy can restore.
Apr 8, 20267 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Survodutide: The GLP-1/Glucagon Dual-Agonist Peptide
Survodutide (BI 456906) is a Phase 3 dual GLP-1/glucagon peptide agonist for MASH and obesity. Here is the mechanism, trial data, and pipeline positioning.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Taurine and Longevity: The 2023 Science Study Explained
Taurine longevity explained — the Singh/Yadav 2023 Science paper, cross-species lifespan data, human correlations, and why one huge study is not replication.
Apr 8, 20268 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4): Science and Evidence Review
TB-500 is marketed as a synthetic thymosin beta-4 for tissue healing. The real story is more complicated, and the human evidence is thinner than advertised.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Tesamorelin: The FDA-Approved GHRH Peptide With Longevity Interest
Tesamorelin is an FDA-approved GHRH analog for HIV lipodystrophy that gained longevity attention after the TRIIM trial reported epigenetic age reversal.
Apr 8, 20269 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Thymosin Alpha-1 (Zadaxin): The Approved Immune Peptide
Thymosin alpha 1 (Zadaxin) is approved in 30+ countries but not the US. Here is the mechanism, hepatitis and COVID trial data, and FDA 503A status.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Urolithin A and Mitophagy: The Mitochondrial Cleanup Peptide
Urolithin A mitophagy explained — how pomegranate metabolites and Mitopure target mitochondrial cleanup, the Andreux and Singh trials, and the 40% problem.
Apr 8, 20267 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Deep Dive
Yamanaka Factors & Peptide Reprogramming: The Next Frontier
Yamanaka factors peptide delivery — why protein-based reprogramming with cell-penetrating peptides may be the safest path to clinical partial reprogramming for aging.
Apr 8, 202610 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Epigenetic Reprogramming: Can We Reverse Aging at the Cellular Level?
Epigenetic reprogramming uses Yamanaka factors to wind back the biological clock of aged cells, offering one of the most promising paths to reversing aging itself.
Mar 28, 20267 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Life Biosciences: The Startup Trying to Reverse Aging in Humans
Life Biosciences launched the first-ever human trial of epigenetic reprogramming in January 2026 — an AAV gene therapy that uses three Yamanaka factors to reverse aging in the eye. Here's the full story of the company, its science, and what it means for the future of longevity medicine.
Mar 28, 202614 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Senolytics 2026: How Zombie Cell Drugs Work
Senolytics destroy aged zombie cells driving disease and aging. Learn how D+Q, fisetin, and gene therapies work, plus 2026 clinical trial status and progress.
Mar 26, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Gene Therapy for Aging: From Lab Mice to Human Trials
Gene therapy is moving beyond treating rare diseases to targeting aging itself, with AAV-delivered rejuvenation genes showing dramatic results in animal models and the first human experiments already underway.
Mar 23, 20268 min read
Longevity Science
Deep Dive
Epigenetic Reprogramming: Can We Reverse Aging at the Cellular Level?
Scientists are using Yamanaka factors and partial reprogramming to reverse cellular aging without erasing cell identity. Here is the science, the companies, and the unanswered questions.
Mar 14, 20266 min read
Beginner Guides
Accessible introductions for newcomers
Peptide Therapeutics
Beginner
MOTS-c: The Mitochondrial Peptide That Mimics Exercise
MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid peptide encoded by mitochondrial DNA that activates the same metabolic pathways as exercise. Here's what the science says about the so-called 'exercise in a bottle.'
May 8, 202614 min read
Peptide Therapeutics
Beginner
GHK-Cu: The Copper Peptide Behind the Longevity and Skin Science Hype
GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring copper peptide that declines with age and plays a role in wound healing, collagen synthesis, and gene expression. Here is what the science actually supports — and where the hype runs ahead of the evidence.
May 5, 202613 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Senolytics FAQ: What They Are, Do They Work, and Are They Safe?
What are senolytics? Do they actually work? Are they safe? A 2026 FAQ answering the most common questions about senolytic drugs and zombie cell clearance.
Apr 16, 202616 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
The 12 Hallmarks of Aging: A Complete Guide
The 12 hallmarks of aging provide a scientific framework for understanding why we age and where interventions might slow or reverse the process.
Mar 27, 20267 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Telomeres and Telomerase: The Biological Clock Inside Your Cells
Telomeres — the protective caps on your chromosomes — shorten with every cell division, acting as a biological countdown clock that shapes aging, cancer, and the limits of cellular life.
Mar 24, 20267 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Epigenetic Clocks: Measuring Your True Biological Age
Your birthday tells you your chronological age. Epigenetic clocks reveal your biological age — and why the difference matters for longevity science.
Mar 17, 20266 min read
Pioneers
Beginner
Shinya Yamanaka: The Father of Cellular Reprogramming
How a failed orthopedic surgeon discovered that just four genes can reprogram adult cells back to an embryonic state, earning a Nobel Prize and opening new frontiers in longevity science.
Mar 8, 20267 min read
Pioneers
Beginner
Elizabeth Blackburn: Unlocking the Secret of Telomeres
How Elizabeth Blackburn discovered telomeres and telomerase, revealing the molecular clock that governs cellular aging and earning a Nobel Prize.
Mar 7, 20267 min read
Pioneers
Beginner
Cynthia Kenyon: The Geneticist Who Doubled Lifespan
How Cynthia Kenyon's discovery that a single gene mutation could double the lifespan of a worm transformed our understanding of aging from inevitable decline to genetically regulated process.
Mar 5, 20267 min read
Pioneers
Beginner
David Sinclair: The Longevity Evangelist
David Sinclair has become the public face of longevity science through his work on sirtuins, NAD+, and epigenetic reprogramming -- and through controversies that have tested his bold claims.
Mar 4, 20268 min read
Pioneers
Beginner
Aubrey de Grey: The Controversial Crusader Against Aging
Aubrey de Grey built a global movement to treat aging as a curable disease, popularizing radical ideas about rejuvenation that inspired a generation of longevity researchers -- before personal controversies clouded his legacy.
Mar 2, 20269 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
The Longevity Diet: What Science Actually Says About Eating to Live Longer
Blue Zones, Mediterranean diet, caloric restriction, intermittent fasting — what does the research actually show about eating for a longer life? Here's the evidence, minus the hype.
Feb 18, 202619 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Bryan Johnson Protocol: What Science Supports
Bryan Johnson's Blueprint protocol costs $2M/year with 100+ supplements and experimental treatments. We break down what the science actually supports in 2026.
Feb 16, 202619 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
NAD+ and Aging: Does NMN Actually Work? What the Science Says
NAD+ levels decline with age, and NMN supplements promise to reverse it. But does the science hold up? Here's an honest, evidence-based look at what we know — and what we don't.
Feb 11, 202620 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Blood Tests for Aging: What Your Biomarkers Actually Mean
Your blood tells a story about how fast you're aging. From hsCRP to HbA1c to GlycanAge, here are the key biomarkers longevity researchers actually track — and what you can do about them.
Dec 19, 202519 min read
Longevity Science
Beginner
Biological Age vs Chronological Age: What's the Difference and Why It Matters
You might be 45 years old but biologically 38 — or 52. Biological age measures how fast your body is actually aging, and it can be changed. Here's how to measure and improve yours.
Nov 25, 202516 min read
Market & Industry
Company analysis, trends, and investment insights
Peptide Therapeutics
Market Analysis
Longevity Peptide Startups to Watch in 2026
The longevity peptide startups worth watching in 2026: BioAge, Rejuvenate Bio, Life Biosciences, Loyal, New Limit. Honest risks and realistic expectations.
Apr 8, 202612 min read
Longevity Science
Market Analysis
Every Longevity Biotech Company You Should Know in 2026
From billion-dollar reprogramming ventures to canine longevity drugs, here are the biotech companies leading the charge against aging in 2026.
Mar 25, 20268 min read
Interactive Explainers
Learning Paths
Longevity Science
Understand why we age and the science behind extending healthy lifespan — from hallmarks of aging to cutting-edge interventions.
5 lessons · ~38 minEpigenetic Reprogramming
The cutting edge of longevity science — how scientists are resetting the epigenetic clock to reverse aging in cells, mice, and now humans.
5 lessons · ~40 minComparisons
Key Glossary Terms
AGEs
Advanced glycation end-products — covalently modified proteins or lipids damaged by glycation. AGEs accumulate with age, crosslink collagen, and drive diabetic complications. Measured as a biomarker in some aging studies.
AMPK
AMP-activated protein kinase — the cellular energy sensor activated when ATP is low. AMPK activation mimics caloric restriction, inhibits mTOR, and induces autophagy. Metformin and MOTS-c both activate AMPK.
autophagy
The cell's recycling system — a process that breaks down and removes damaged proteins and organelles. Declines with age. Stimulated by fasting, exercise, and mTOR inhibition, and believed to be important for healthy aging.
autophagy
The cellular 'self-eating' recycling pathway that clears damaged proteins, organelles, and aggregates. Autophagy declines with age and is activated by caloric restriction, rapamycin, and spermidine. Central to proteostasis and longevity research.
biological age
A measure of how old your body actually is at a molecular level, as opposed to chronological age (years since birth). Estimated using biomarkers like DNA methylation patterns, and can be older or younger than chronological age.
CALERIE
Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy — the landmark 2023 NIH caloric restriction trial showing that a 12% reduction in calories over 2 years slowed biological aging in non-obese healthy adults.
caloric restriction mimetic
A compound that produces the metabolic and longevity effects of caloric restriction without requiring reduced food intake. Examples include rapamycin, metformin, spermidine, and resveratrol.
cellular senescence
A state of permanent cell cycle arrest in which cells stop dividing but remain metabolically active, often secreting inflammatory factors (SASP). Accumulation of senescent cells is a hallmark of aging and the target of senolytic drugs.
epigenetic clock
A molecular test that estimates biological age by measuring DNA methylation patterns at specific sites across the genome. Developed by Steve Horvath and others. Used to measure the effect of anti-aging interventions.
epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression that don't involve changes to the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic modifications (like DNA methylation) can be inherited and are linked to aging.
FGF21
Fibroblast growth factor 21 — a liver-derived hormone that mimics caloric restriction, activates AMPK, and improves metabolic health. FGF21 analogs are in clinical trials for NASH and obesity.
GDF11
Growth differentiation factor 11 — a TGF-β family member identified in Wyss-Coray and Wagers lab parabiosis experiments as a potential 'young blood' rejuvenating factor. Subsequent research has been controversial, with some findings not replicating.
glycation
The non-enzymatic reaction of sugars (like glucose) with proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids, forming advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). Accumulated AGEs damage tissues and drive aging, especially in diabetes.
hallmarks of aging
A framework introduced by López-Otín et al. in 2013 Cell paper (updated 2023) identifying 9–12 interconnected cellular and molecular processes that together drive aging, including mitochondrial dysfunction, genomic instability, and cellular senescence.
Hayflick limit
The maximum number of times a normal somatic cell can divide (typically 40–60) before entering senescence, discovered by Leonard Hayflick in 1961. Caused by progressive telomere shortening. Cancer and stem cells bypass this limit.
Related Clinical Trials
| Therapy | Company | Disease | Phase | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Altos Labs Reprogramming Program | Altos Labs | Aging / age-related degeneration | Preclinical | Active |
| Retro Biosciences Reprogramming Program | Retro Biosciences | Aging (goal: add 10 healthy years) | Preclinical | Active |
| NewLimit Epigenetic Program | NewLimit | Aging / immune aging | Preclinical | Active |
| ER-100 Partial Epigenetic Reprogramming (Glaucoma) | Life Biosciences | Open-angle glaucoma | Phase 1 | Recruiting |
| ER-100 Partial Epigenetic Reprogramming (NAION) | Life Biosciences | Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) | Phase 1 | Recruiting |
| Turn Biotechnologies ERA Platform | Turn Biotechnologies | Aging / skin aging / osteoarthritis | Preclinical | Active |